What is Al-Andalus?
It is the territory of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492 AD
1. Emirate and Caliphate of Córdoba
Taking advantage of the decline of the Visigothic monarchy and encouraged by the jihad, the Muslims, led by Tariq, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar (711) and defeated the armies of Roderic, the last Visigothic king, at the Battle of Guadalete . The Muslims completed the occupation of the Iberian Peninsula in just three years, except in some regions of Cantabria and the Pyrenees, where their northward advance was halted at the Battle of Covadonga in 722 by the Asturians and then by the Franks at Poitiers (732), marking the end of Muslim expansion in Europe. Typically, the signed surrender allowed the occupiers to retain their lands in exchange for tribute. The speed of the conquest was partly due to Islam's tolerance of Christians and Jews (People of the Book) and the lack of interest among most of the population in defending the new monarchy, with whom they did not identify. As a result of the Muslim conquest, the peninsula became a province or emirate of the Caliphate of Damascus, ruled by an emir acting on behalf of the caliph.
Chronology of this stage
- In 756, Abd al-Rahman I, belonging to the Umayyad dynasty, was banished from Baghdad by the Abbasids and arrived in the Iberian Peninsula where he declared himself an independent emir, and acted more as a political leader than as a religious authority. It was a period of consolidation of Islamic power, stimulating economic and urban development.
- In 929, Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph and political and spiritual leader. This caliphal period represents the period of cultural splendor of Al-Andalus.
- In the year 976, Hisham II came to power and his army won victory over the Christian core in the north.
- Almanzor was a Hachib or prime minister who supplanted Caliph Hisham II. Almanzor launched a strong offensive against the Christians. They carried out the raids or aceifas, which were surprise raids against the Christians of the north.
- After Almanzor's death, conflicts between rival factions brought down the caliphate and ended in 1031 when a revolution overthrew the last caliph, Hisham III, and Al-Andalus was divided into several Taifa kingdoms.
2. The kingdoms of taifas
The Taifa kingdoms, according to the dominant ethnicity, could be divided into Arab or Andalusian, as in Córdoba, Seville, or Zaragoza; Berber, as in Granada or Málaga; and Slavic, as in Valencia. They were still economically prosperous territories and, in some cases, of great cultural importance, but their existence and survival often depended on paying tribute or taxes.
In 1085 Toledo was conquered by Alfonso VI of Castile. The Muslims asked for help from the Almoravids, ultra-orthodox Muslims who founded a great empire in North Africa. The leader Yusuf arrived on the peninsula in 1086 and defeated Alfonso VI in the battle of Sagrajas (Badajoz) and then returned to Africa again. But in 1090, he returned to the peninsula to conquer the Taifa Kingdoms. But that will not take hold completely and in the next century, the power of the Almoravids will be reinforced by establishing the second kingdoms of Taifas in 1145.
The Almoravids were defeated in Al-Andalus and their African empire disappeared and a new empire, the Almohad, took its place. The Almohads began the occupation of the peninsula in 1147. The unity of Al-Andalus was consolidated under the Almohads and attacks on the Christian kingdoms intensified. In 1195, the leader Ben Yusuf defeated the army of Alfonso VIII in the battle of Alarcos. The seriousness of the situation forced the Christian kings to leave behind their internal differences to create a common army against the Almohads sponsored by Pope Innocent III. In 1212, the Christian army defeated the Almohad army in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. With this failure, the power of the Almohads in the peninsula was destroyed, the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada would be the last stronghold of the Muslim presence in the peninsula.
The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada was founded by Muhammad I. The period of maximum splendor occurred between 1333 and 1394. Then a political crisis occurred that ended with Sultan Boabdil in 1492 with the conquest of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs.
3. The social and political organization of Al-Andalus
The new Muslim state brought far greater economic development than the Christian kingdoms. In agriculture, Muslims promoted irrigation practices by introducing waterwheels, irrigation ditches, and the cultivation of crops such as citrus fruits, rice, cotton, flax, esparto grass, and saffron. However, the main crops remained cereals, grapes, and olives. Animal production flourished, particularly the raising of cattle, sheep, and horses. In mining, under state control, lead, copper, tin, sulfur, cinnabar, and gold were extracted most prominently, obtained by panning in river currents.
As an urban civilization, the production of manufactured products developed, particularly in the production of textiles or fabrics of wool, silk, linen, ceramics and weapons (Córdoba and Toledo), paper (Játiva), glass production, etc. It is preferred to trade currencies such as the gold dinar and the silver dirham. Internal trade was carried out in the city markets, where the bazaars and alhóndigas (warehouses) were located. Al-Andalus also maintained important foreign trade. Among the products it exported were agricultural products, minerals and spices. It also imported, among other things, gold and slaves.
The population of Al-Andalus was characterized by its ethnic and religious diversity. Muslims, Arabs, Berbers, Syrians, and Muladi (Christians converted to Islam) lived alongside Mozarabs (Christians living in Muslim territory) and Jews, as well as Slavic and Black slaves. They were divided into the following groups:
- Arab aristocracy: they own land and occupy the main administrative positions.
- Middle social groups: members of the army and merchants.
- Popular classes: peasants and artisans. The majority of the population belonged to this social group.
- Slaves: few in number. For domestic tasks and for the army (Africans) The majority were in rural areas. Although its importance in its presence in the city stands out. Córdoba (100.000 inhabitants), Seville, Valencia, Zaragoza, Málaga or Almería.
The cities were the places where the economic, cultural and social activity of the Andalusians developed. The markets were located in the souk, here were the artisans and merchants of ceramics, leather, fabrics, glass, goldsmiths,... The center of the city was the medina, where public buildings were located such as baths, mosques, schools (madrassas) and commercial areas, alcaicerías and warehouses called alhondigas. Outside the walls were the neighborhoods, called suburbs. The city of Córdoba was the nerve center of Al-Andalus, exceeding 100.000 inhabitants, a very high figure for the XNUMXth century, which made it the most populated city in Western Europe.
At the top of the Andalusian hierarchy was the caliph/emir, who held maximum political and religious power. Then below was the hachib who was the prime minister and head of the government. Below this, there were the viziers who were a type of ministers who were in charge of advising on certain government issues. In the provinces or choras the valis ruled. The main organ of the administration was the Chancellery, which was in charge of bureaucratic issues such as the issuance of official documents. The administration of justice fell to the cadis and they were not only based on laws, but also on religion. The most important cadi was that of Córdoba.
In Al Andalus, the army was mainly made up of soldiers recruited by levies, volunteers and paid mercenaries. The emir or caliph held the high leadership of the army. Below the caliph, there was the caid, who commanded the different bodies.
4. The Andalusian cultural legacy
Al-Andalus was a region of great cultural development. Initially, cultural development was very limited due to the repression exerted by the Malikis, one of the most fundamentalist Islamic factions. It wasn't until the Caliphate of Córdoba in the 10th and 11th centuries that greater intellectual freedom was permitted, under caliphs such as Abd al-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II, who allowed the development of scientific disciplines such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, history, and geography. In literature, we can mention the jarchas, which are short lyrical compositions, and the work of the poet Ibn Hazm, The Ring of the Dove. Ibn Haldun was an important historian; his most notable work is Introduction to Universal History. In philosophy, Averroes and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides stood out for their commentaries on the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle and other classical thinkers, which reached Europe thanks to the commentaries and translations produced in Al-Andalus. In the scientific field, the numbering system we know today, including the number zero, was widely disseminated; this numerical system replaced Roman numerals. There were also great mathematicians, astronomers, botanists, and physicians. In architecture, we find works such as the Mosque of Córdoba, the Alhambra of Granada, the Giralda of Seville, and the Aljafería Palace of Zaragoza. All this cultural wealth was inherited by the Christians.
